The frequency window effect of sinusoidal electromagnetic fields in promoting osteogenic differentiation and bone formation involves extension of osteoblastic primary cilia and activation of protein kinase A

Exposed osteoblast cells [30, 40, 50, 60 Hz]: Decreased osteoblast proliferation.

Exposed osteoblast cells [10, 70, 80 Hz]: Increased osteoblast proliferation.

Exposed osteoblast cells [10, 50, 70 Hz]: Increased osteogenic differentiation and mineralization [50 Hz greatest effects].

Exposed rats (2 months exposure) [10, 50, 100 Hz]: Increased whole body bone mineral density (BMD) and femur micro‐architecture [50 Hz greatest effects].

Exposed osteoblast cells [various Hz]: Increased primary cilia lengths and increased protein kinase A activation [50 Hz greatest effects].